Theories of Aging Fully Explained

Different disciplines have developed theories of aging due to the complex nature of aging process. These theories will be discussed under the following perspective biological, sociological and psychological theories of aging. We will discuss the nursing theories that applied to nursing care of the aged. The importance of theories in the nursing practice will also be highlighted.

THEORIES OF AGING

Theories of aging are viewed from different perspectives. This is because of the complex nature of the process of aging. Some of the perspective includes:

1. Biological Theories of Aging: The biological theories of aging are divided into three major categories:
2. Genetic Mutation Theory: It states that aging is the result of accumulated mutations in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the cells that lead to progressive impairement of the functions. This theory focused on the role of telomerase enzyme that expressed in germ cells not in the body cells. The telomeres found in the end of chromosomes appear to shorten with each cell cycle in the body. This leads to decrease in cell reproductive capacity and ultimately, cell death.
3. Oxidative Stress Theory: This theory is based on oxygen-free radicals that are generated randomly in cells during oxidative metabolisms. These free radicals have the potentials of damaging the cells. These oxgen- free radicals have the abilities to combine chemical with proteins which result to break in DNA. The DNA in the mitochondria is probably vulnerable to these type of damage because of its proximity to the oxidative metabolism machinery. The enzymes like superoxide dimutase, an antioxdiant enzymes removes these free radicals in normal cells. But such enzymes are found tobe decreased in elderly.
4. Genetic Programme Theory: This theory states that because maximal life span is genetically determined, the aging process is also genetically determined. That means that regulatory processes turn off expression of some genes and turn on others.

Sociological Theories:

These theories focus on the rates and relationship in which individuals participate in their later years and on adaptation to accepted social values. There are five lines of thought concerning the successful way for old people to cope with the various stresses to which they are subjected.

Disengagement Theory:

According to Cumming and Henry (1926) the elderly cope best if they accept the inevitability of reduced contact with others, particularly the activities of younger people and manage to enjoy their retreat from the hurly-burly of everyday life. It proposes that aging is a developmental task in/and of itself, associated with particular pattern of behaviour that result from simply growing older. Most old people dismissed this theory as not being valid since older people do not tend to withdraw but continue to be active in their churches and communities for as long as they are able.

1. Continuity Theory: This theory proposed that how a person has been throughout life, is how the person will continue through the remainder of life. It states that individuals change very little over time. If they were active and outgoing when they were younger, they most likely would behave in exactly the same way as their age.
2. Activity Theory: This theory holds that an older person, aware of certain failing skills make all the more effort to counter this deterioration on others to maintain a sense of purpose and satisfaction. This theory proposes the opposite of the disengagement theory. It is saying that older people remain active which in itself is a sign of “healthy aging”.
3. Age Stratification Theory: The theory focuses on the interdependence of the older adults with the society and how the aging person is viewed by others. This in other words means that it is the society that determine who is elderly.

Environment Fit Theory

This theory relates the individual’s personal competence within the interactions. It focuses on interrelationships between the competence of a group of people, older adults and their society or environment. The changes in behaviour as people age can explained in three ways:

• As the person ages, changes may occur in some of the individuals competences that may not be acceptable by the environment.
• As a person ages, the environment may become more threatening and make one feel incompetent to deal with it.
• With rapid advances in technology in all areas of life, the older person might feel intimidated by the chaos and noise around them and tend to become more isolated.

Psychological Theories of Aging:

The psychological theory of aging is related to sociologic theories of aging. As a person ages psychologically, adoptive changes take place that assert the person to cope with or accept some of the biologic changes. These adoptive mechanisms include memory, learning capacity, feeling, intellectual functioning and motivation to engage or not engage in particular activities. Psychologic aging incorporates both behavioural changes and also developmental aspects related to the older adults. Only those areas of the psychological theories that relate to elderly will be looked at.

1. Jung’s Theory of Individuals: Jung stated that successful aging is when a person can look deeply inside self and is able to evaluate and value past accomplishment and accept one’s limitations.
2. Erikson’s Stages of Life Theory: This stated that elderly person (65 and above) has a psychological crisis of ego integrity versus despair. He said that older adults can look back with sense of satisfaction and acceptance of life and death. He went further to say that unsuccessful resolution of this crisis may result in sense of despair in which individuals view life as a series of misfortunes, disappointment and failure.

Nursing Theories

It should be noted that all these theories discussed above are not nursing theories. Nursing utilize both Science theories and social science thories but it is nursing theories that help nursing to grow to professional status.

The importance of Nursing Theories for development of Nursing

Not only is theory essential for the existence of nursing as an academic discipline, it is also viral to the practice of different branches of the profession. (Tomey and Alligood, 2002).

The importance of nursing theories for the profession can be stated as follows:

• Nursing theories utilized in the nursing practice gives a well-defined and well-organized body of specialized knowledge that is on the intellectual level of the higher learning.
• Nursing theories constantly enlarge the bodies of knowledge nursing uses to improve her techniques of education and service by the use of scientific method.
• Nursing theories entrusts the educaton of nurse practitioners to institutions of higher learning.
• Nursing theories applies its body of knowledge in practical services that are vital to human and social welfare.
• Nursing theories help nurses to function autonomously in the formulation of professional policy and in the control of professional activities thereby.
• Nursing theories attract individuals of intellectual and personal qualities who exalt service above personal gain and who recognize their chosen occupation as a life work.
• Nursing theories strives to compensate nurse practitioners by providing freedom of action, opportunity for continous professional growth and economic security.
• Nursing theories relevant to Gerontological Nursing Practice:

Lininger’s Transcultural Nursin

This theory proposes that cultural care provides the broadcast and most important means that nurses can use to promote health and well-being. To her, nursing is an inherently transcultural profession and transcultural care knowledge is essential if nurses are to give competent and necessary care to people from different culture. Leininger linked care with culture and proposed that they should not be separated in nursing actions and decisions. She suggested that the ultimate goal of cultural care nursing is for nurses to assist, support or enable all individuals to maintain well-being, improve life or face death.

Leiniager’s theory fitted in well with gerontological nursing because culture determines the societal values of an elderly person. The more the culture ascribed value to the elderly person, the more care and protection the society give to the elderly. In other words, the nurse must know that the concept of health and care an elderly received is individually and culturally defined.

Self Care Deficit Theory of Nursing.

Orem’s self-care deficit theory of nursing described three concepts that are basic to nursing practice – self-care, self-care deficits and nursing system.

Nursing System: Self-care encompasses the basic activities that aid health promotion, well-being and health maitenance. The self-care requisites include the need food, air, rest, social interacting and other components of human functions. The self-care requisites are the focus of health-related behaviour of individuals, families and community.

Nursing system according to Orems theory are multidimensional and viewed as wholly compensatory, partially compensatory or supportive-educative system. This theory completely takes care of the type of patients that are common in elderly. Some are completely dependent but still need health- education. The other group may be normally dependent while the rest may be completely dependent on the care by others. The theory view care as something to be performed by both nurses and patients. The role of a nurse is to provide education and support that help patient acquire the necessary abilities to perform self-care (Rice 2001). The principles of gerontological nursing can completely be based on this theory.